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=== L'ampliació del paper dels amerindis americans ===
-In the aftermath of the Saratoga campaign, a frontier war emerged. Before Burgoyne's campaign, Quebec's Governor [[Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester|Guy Carleton]] had previously restricted their use in Quebec territory (which at that time encompassed the Iroquois lands that are now western New York, Ohio, and northwestern Pennsylvania). Carleton was, however, ordered by Secretary of State [[George Germain, 1st Viscount Sackville|George Germain]] (who harbored an intense political and personal hatred for Carleton, and had denied him the command given to Burgoyne) to expand recruitment. This Carleton did, encouraging and funding [[John Butler (pioneer)|John Butler]] at [[Fort Niagara]] for the purpose. Some of these recruits joined Burgoyne, while others joined [[Barry St. Leger]] on his equally unsuccessful [[Siege of Fort Stanwix]] in August 1777. The bloody [[Battle of Oriskany]], fought mainly between Native Americans on the British side and Tryon County militia accompanied by some [[Oneida people|Oneida]]s, exposed fractures within the Iroquois Confederacy and marked the start of a bloody intra-Iroquois civil war.
Although there were still tribal interests that wanted to remain neutral, vocal advocates of war, including the Mohawk leader [[Joseph Brant]], and the continued persuasion of John Butler (which included many presents and the use of liquor to weakening Native resolve), convinced many of the Iroquois, particularly the [[Seneca people|Senecas]] and [[Cayuga people|Cayugas]] to take up arms for the British. These forces were principally led by war chiefs leaders [[Cornplanter]] and [[Sayenqueraghta]], although Brant led a contingent of Mohawks and a small force of Loyalists known as [[Brant's Volunteers]]. Brant's recruitment of Loyalists sometimes put him at odds with the Butlers, who were also recruiting Loyalists for their [[Butler's Rangers|ranger companies]].▼
Tot i que encara hi havia interessos tribals que volien mantenir-se neutrals, els defensors vocals de la guerra, inclòs el líder de Mohawk, Joseph Brant, i la persuasió continuada de John Butler (que incloïa molts regals i l’ús del licor per debilitar la resolució nativa), van convèncer molts dels els iroquesos, en particular els senecas i els Cayugas, per agafar armes als britànics. Aquestes forces van ser dirigides principalment pels líders caps de guerra Cornplanter i Sayenqueraghta, tot i que Brant dirigia un contingent de mohawks i una petita força de fidels coneguts com a voluntaris de Brant. La contractació de loyalistes de Brant a vegades el posava en contradicció amb els Butlers, que també reclutaven lleialistes per a les seves companyies de serveis.
▲-Although there were still tribal interests that wanted to remain neutral, vocal advocates of war, including the Mohawk leader [[Joseph Brant]], and the continued persuasion of John Butler (which included many presents and the use of liquor to weakening Native resolve), convinced many of the Iroquois, particularly the [[Seneca people|Senecas]] and [[Cayuga people|Cayugas]] to take up arms for the British. These forces were principally led by war chiefs leaders [[Cornplanter]] and [[Sayenqueraghta]], although Brant led a contingent of Mohawks and a small force of Loyalists known as [[Brant's Volunteers]]. Brant's recruitment of Loyalists sometimes put him at odds with the Butlers, who were also recruiting Loyalists for their [[Butler's Rangers|ranger companies]].
===Les incursions a les valls, 1778===
Aquestes forces es van dedicar a incursions destructives sobre assentaments perifèrics de Nova York i Pennsilvània a les valls de Mohawk, Susquehanna, Delaware i de la part superior del riu Hudson, coneguda com la crema de les valls. Aquestes incursions tenien l'objectiu de destruir granges i conreus i interrompre el flux de subministraments a les forces americanes. Aquestes operacions van ser principalment sota el lideratge de John Butler, el seu fill Walter, o sota la direcció d’un dels caps de guerra. El van subministrar els britànics a Quebec i les simpatitzants comunitats lleialistes i índies. Aquestes incursions de vegades es van creuar al territori de l'actual Vermont, territori que formalment va ser reclamat per Nova York però recentment havia proclamat la independència de Nova York després de molts anys de disputa. Els colons de frontera van organitzar milícies per defensar-se, i van tenir el suport d’uns quants regiments de l’exèrcit continental amb seu a Fort Schuyler, Cherry Valley i el vall de Wyoming (actualment part de Pennsilvània però després disputats entre aquest estat i Connecticut). Aquestes defenses van ser en gran mesura inefectives per evitar que els assaltants actuessin, però a vegades es va advertir a les comunitats d’atacs imminents d’amics Oneidas, la majoria dels quals tenien cara als nord-americans.
These forces engaged in destructive raids on outlying settlements of New York and Pennsylvania in the [[Mohawk River|Mohawk]], [[Susquehanna River|Susquehanna]], [[Delaware River|Delaware]], and upper [[Hudson River]] valleys, known as the ''Burning of the Valleys''. These raids aimied to destroy farms and crops and disrupt the flow of supplies to the American forces. These operations were primarily under the leadership of John Butler, his son [[Walter Butler (Loyalist)|Walter]], or under the direction of one of the war chiefs. They were supplied by the British in Quebec and sympathetic Loyalist and Indian communities. These raids sometimes crossed into the territory of present-day [[Vermont]], territory that was formally claimed by New York but had recently [[Vermont Republic|proclaimed independence]] from New York after [[New Hampshire Grants|many years of dispute]]. The frontier settlers organized militia to defend themselves, and were supported by a few Continental Army Regiments based at [[Fort Schuyler (Rome)|Fort Schuyler]], [[Cherry Valley (village), New York|Cherry Valley]], and the [[Wyoming Valley]] (now part of Pennsylvania but then disputed between that state and [[Connecticut]]). These defenses were largely ineffective at preventing the raiders from acting, but communities were sometimes warned of impending attacks by friendly [[Oneida people|Oneidas]], most of whom sided with the Americans.▼
▲-These forces engaged in destructive raids on outlying settlements of New York and Pennsylvania in the [[Mohawk River|Mohawk]], [[Susquehanna River|Susquehanna]], [[Delaware River|Delaware]], and upper [[Hudson River]] valleys, known as the ''Burning of the Valleys''. These raids aimied to destroy farms and crops and disrupt the flow of supplies to the American forces. These operations were primarily under the leadership of John Butler, his son [[Walter Butler (Loyalist)|Walter]], or under the direction of one of the war chiefs. They were supplied by the British in Quebec and sympathetic Loyalist and Indian communities. These raids sometimes crossed into the territory of present-day [[Vermont]], territory that was formally claimed by New York but had recently [[Vermont Republic|proclaimed independence]] from New York after [[New Hampshire Grants|many years of dispute]]. The frontier settlers organized militia to defend themselves, and were supported by a few Continental Army Regiments based at [[Fort Schuyler (Rome)|Fort Schuyler]], [[Cherry Valley (village), New York|Cherry Valley]], and the [[Wyoming Valley]] (now part of Pennsylvania but then disputed between that state and [[Connecticut]]). These defenses were largely ineffective at preventing the raiders from acting, but communities were sometimes warned of impending attacks by friendly [[Oneida people|Oneidas]], most of whom sided with the Americans.
In 1778, Brant recruited [[Brant's Volunteers|a mixed force]] of Loyalists and Iroquois, and started his frontier raids with an [[Battle of Cobleskill|attack]] on [[Cobleskill (village), New York|Cobleskill, New York]] in May 1778, and the Senecas operated in the Susquehanna River valley, driving settlers out of present-day [[Lycoming County, Pennsylvania]] in a series of actions that became known as the [[Big Runaway]]. The Butlers and Senecas joined forces in early July to [[Battle of Wyoming|attack the Wyoming Valley]]. Although Brant was not present, atrocities claimed to have been committed there contributed to his reputation as a "monster", and the Seneca were outraged at false accusations that they had committed atrocities.▼
▲-In 1778, Brant recruited [[Brant's Volunteers|a mixed force]] of Loyalists and Iroquois, and started his frontier raids with an [[Battle of Cobleskill|attack]] on [[Cobleskill (village), New York|Cobleskill, New York]] in May 1778, and the Senecas operated in the Susquehanna River valley, driving settlers out of present-day [[Lycoming County, Pennsylvania]] in a series of actions that became known as the [[Big Runaway]]. The Butlers and Senecas joined forces in early July to [[Battle of Wyoming|attack the Wyoming Valley]]. Although Brant was not present, atrocities claimed to have been committed there contributed to his reputation as a "monster", and the Seneca were outraged at false accusations that they had committed atrocities.
Brant joined forces with some of [[Butler's Rangers]] to [[Attack on German Flatts (1778)|attack German Flatts]] in early September. New York authorities responded to Brant's activities by [[Raid on Unadilla and Onaquaga|destroying]] the Indian towns of [[Unadilla (village), New York|Unadilla]] and [[Onaquaga]] in October; those towns had been used by Brant and the Butlers as bases of operation. Brant, the Butlers and some Senecas joined forces to take revenge by participating in [[Cherry Valley massacre|a major attack]] on [[Cherry Valley (village), New York|Cherry Valley]] in early November in which as many as 30 non-combatants were slaughtered in the aftermath. British forces from the [[Montreal]] area led by Major [[Christopher Carleton]] [[Carleton's Raid (1778)|raided]] communities in the upper Hudson River valley in October.▼
El 1778, Brant va reclutar una força mixta de lleialistes i iroquesos, i va iniciar les seves incursions frontereres amb un atac a Cobleskill, Nova York el maig de 1778, i els Senecas van operar a la vall del riu Susquehanna, i van expulsar els pobladors fora del comtat de Lycoming actual, Pennsilvània en una sèrie d’accions que es van fer conegudes com el Big Runaway. Els majordoms i Senecas es van unir a principis de juliol per atacar la vall del Wyoming. Tot i que Brant no hi era present, les atrocitats que afirmaven haver-se comès allí van contribuir a la seva reputació de "monstre", i la Sèneca es va indignar davant de falses acusacions d'haver comès atrocitats.
Brant va unir esforços amb alguns dels Butler's Rangers per atacar German Flatts a principis de setembre. Les autoritats de Nova York van respondre a les activitats de Brant destruint les ciutats índies d'Unadilla i Onaquaga a l'octubre; aquells pobles havien estat utilitzats per Brant i els Butlers com a bases de funcionament. Brant, els majordoms i alguns Senecas es van unir per venjar-se participant en un atac important a la vall de la cirera a principis de novembre en el qual es van assassinar fins a 30 no combatents després de la matinada. Les forces britàniques de la zona de Mont-real dirigides pel major Christopher Carleton van assaltar les comunitats a la vall del riu Hudson a l'octubre.
▲-Brant joined forces with some of [[Butler's Rangers]] to [[Attack on German Flatts (1778)|attack German Flatts]] in early September. New York authorities responded to Brant's activities by [[Raid on Unadilla and Onaquaga|destroying]] the Indian towns of [[Unadilla (village), New York|Unadilla]] and [[Onaquaga]] in October; those towns had been used by Brant and the Butlers as bases of operation. Brant, the Butlers and some Senecas joined forces to take revenge by participating in [[Cherry Valley massacre|a major attack]] on [[Cherry Valley (village), New York|Cherry Valley]] in early November in which as many as 30 non-combatants were slaughtered in the aftermath. British forces from the [[Montreal]] area led by Major [[Christopher Carleton]] [[Carleton's Raid (1778)|raided]] communities in the upper Hudson River valley in October.
===L'expedició de Sullivan, 1779===
-The brutal frontier warfare led to calls in the Continental Congress for the army to take an active role. In 1779, Washington sent General [[John Sullivan (general)|John Sullivan]] on [[Sullivan Expedition|a punitive expedition]] to suppress Indian attacks. Sullivan and his troops systematically destroyed Iroquois villages, successfully driving the Iroquois north into Quebec. In the only major action in that expedition, Sullivan's forces defeated those of the Butlers and Brant in the [[Battle of Newtown]]. Brant led raids that specifically targeted the villages of the Oneida and the [[Tuscarora people|Tuscarora]], who also supported the American cause. This destruction of Indian villages on both sides effectively depopulated much of the Iroquois territory as the survivors of the raids became refugees, but Sullivan's expedition failed in its objective of stopping or reducing the frequency of frontier attacks. In April, a few months prior to the Sullivan Expedition, American [[Goose Van Schaick|Colonel Van Schaick]] led an expedition of over 500 soldiers against the [[Onondaga Indians|Onondagas]], destroying several villages.
===La continuació de les incursions===
Fins i tot després que es pactés la pau preliminar el 1782, Brant va intentar continuar la guerra, però es va veure obligat a abandonar l’esforç quan els britànics van deixar de subministrar-lo.<ref>{{cite book| url=https://archive.org/details/historyofwashing00crei| quote=ann hupp indian.| title=History of Washington County| author=Alfred Creigh| publisher=B. Singerly| date=1871 | page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofwashing00crei/page/49 49]}}</ref>
-The Butlers continued to attack New York frontier areas while Brant became more active on the [[Western theater of the American Revolutionary War|western front]]. In early April 1782, [[Anne Hupp]] defended the fort of Miller's Blockhouse against a [[Shawnee]] Indian attack, for over 24 hours in 1782 while eight months pregnant, after her husband was murdered and scalped.
-Even after preliminary peace was agreed in 1782, Brant tried to continue the war, but was forced to abandon the effort when the British stopped supplying him.
==Referències==
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