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[[Teatre sud de la Guerra de la Revolució Americana]] / [[:en:Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War]] (42.7)
El '''Teatre sud de la Guerra de la Revolució Americana''' va ser el teatre central de les operacions militars de la segona meitat de la guerra revolucionària nord-americana, 1778-1781. Comprenia compromisos principalment a Virgínia, Geòrgia i Carolina del Sud. Les tàctiques consistien tant en batalles estratègiques com en guerres.
33-The '''Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War''' was the central [[theater (warfare)|theater]] of [[military operation]]s in the second half of the [[American Revolutionary War]], 1778–1781. It encompassed engagements primarily in [[Virginia in the American Revolution|Virginia]], [[Georgia in the American Revolution|Georgia]] and [[South Carolina in the American Revolution|South Carolina]]. [[Military tactics|Tactics]] consisted of both strategic [[battle]]s and [[guerrilla warfare]].
Durant els primers tres anys del conflicte, 1775-78, els més grans encontres militars entre l'Exèrcit continental i l'exèrcit britànic van tenir lloc a les colònies de Nova Anglaterra i del Mig, al voltant de les ciutats de Boston, Nova York i Filadèlfia. Després del fracàs de la campanya de Saratoga, l'exèrcit britànic va abandonar en gran mesura les operacions al nord i va continuar la pau mitjançant la subjecció a les colònies del sud.<ref>Hibbert, C.; ''Rebels and Redcoats''; p. 235.</ref> Abans de 1778, aquestes colònies estaven dominades en gran part per governs i milícies controlades pels patriotes, tot i que també hi havia una presència de l'Exèrcit continental que va tenir un paper en la defensa de Charleston, el 1776, la supressió de milícies lleials i els intents per impulsar els britànics de fortament lleialistes. Est de la Florida.
32-During the first three years of the conflict, 1775–78, the largest military encounters between [[Continental Army]] and the [[British Army during the American Revolutionary War|British Army]] had been in the [[New England Colonies|New England]] and [[Middle Colonies|Middle]] colonies, around the cities of [[Boston campaign|Boston]], [[New York and New Jersey campaign|New York]], and [[Philadelphia campaign|Philadelphia]]. After the failure of the [[Saratoga campaign]], the British Army largely abandoned operations in the north and pursued peace through subjugation in the [[Southern Colonies]]. Before 1778, these colonies were largely dominated by [[Patriot (American Revolution)|Patriot]]-controlled governments and [[Militia (United States)|militias]], although there was also a Continental Army presence that played a role in the 1776 [[Battle of Sullivan's Island|defense of Charleston]], the suppression of [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|loyalist]] militias, and attempts to drive the British from strongly loyalist [[East Florida]].
Els britànics comencen a implementar la seva «Estratègia del Sud» a finals de 1778, a Geòrgia. Inicialment va obtenir èxit amb la captura de Savannah, Geòrgia, que va ser seguida el 1780 per operacions a Carolina del Sud que van incloure la derrota de les forces continentals a Charleston i Camden. Al mateix temps, França (el 1778) i Espanya (el 1779) van declarar la guerra a Gran Bretanya en suport dels Estats Units. Espanya va capturar tota la Florida occidental britànica, culminant amb el setge de Pensacola el 1781. França inicialment va oferir només suport naval durant els primers anys després de la seva declaració de guerra, però el 1781 va enviar un gran nombre de soldats a unir-se a l'exèrcit del general George Washington i van marxar cap a Virgínia de Nova York. El general Nathanael Greene, que es va fer càrrec com a comandant de l'Exèrcit continental després de Camden, es va dedicar a una estratègia d'evitació i d'atracció contra els britànics. Les dues forces van lluitar una sèrie de batalles, la majoria de les quals van ser tàctiques, tot i que van ser victòries piròfiques per a l'exèrcit britànic. L'elevat cost de víctimes va deixar que es va debilitar estratègicament, mentre que l'Exèrcit continental es va mantenir en gran mesura intacte per continuar lluitant. Això ho va exemplificar millor la batalla del jutjat de Guilford. Diverses victòries americanes, com la batalla del molí de Ramseur, la batalla de Cowpens i la batalla de Kings Mountain, també van servir per afeblir la força militar britànica. El compromís culminant, el setge de Yorktown, va acabar amb la rendició del general britànic Lord Cornwallis el 19 d'octubre de 1781. Va ser essencialment l'última gran batalla de la Guerra Revolucionària.<ref>Russell, David Lee; ''The America Revolution in the Southern Colonies''; 2009.</ref><ref>{{cite web| last=McBrayer| first=Rachel| title=Southern Strategy| work=The Digital Encyclopedia of George Washington| url=https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/southern-strategy/| publisher=Mount Vernon Ladies' Association| location=Mount Vernon, Virginia| accessdate=August 29, 2019}}</ref> Poc després, van començar les negociacions entre els Estats Units i la Gran Bretanya, donant com a resultat el [[Tractat de París (1783)|tractat de París de 1783]].
31-British begin to implement their "Southern Strategy" in late 1778, in Georgia. It initially achieved success with the [[Capture of Savannah|capture]] of [[Savannah, Georgia]], which was followed in 1780 by operations in [[South Carolina]] that included the defeat of Continental forces at [[Siege of Charleston|Charleston]] and [[Battle of Camden|Camden]]. At the same time [[France in the American Revolutionary War|France]] (in 1778) and [[Spain and the American Revolutionary War|Spain]] (in 1779) declared war on [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] in support of the United States. Spain captured all of [[British West Florida]], culminating in the [[Siege of Pensacola]] in 1781. France initially offered only naval support for the first few years after its declaration of war but in 1781 sent massive numbers of soldiers to join General [[George Washington]]'s army and marched into Virginia from New York. General [[Nathanael Greene]], who took over as Continental Army commander after Camden, engaged in a strategy of avoidance and attrition against the British. The two forces fought a string of battles, most of which were tactical, though [[Pyrrhic victory|pyrrhic victories]] for the British Army. The high cost in casualties left it strategically weakened, while the Continental Army remained largely intact to continue fighting. This was best exemplified by the [[Battle of Guilford Courthouse]]. Several American victories, such as the [[Battle of Ramseur's Mill]], the [[Battle of Cowpens]], and the [[Battle of Kings Mountain]], also served to weaken the overall British military strength. The culminating engagement, the [[Siege of Yorktown]], ended with the surrender of British General [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Lord Cornwallis]] on October 19, 1781. It was essentially the last major battle of the Revolutionary War. Shortly afterward, negotiations between the United States and Great Britain began, resulting in the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]] of 1783.
==Les primeres operacions, 1775–1778==
[[File:EasternVirginia1775.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.2|Detail of a 1770s map showing eastern Virginia and many of the places where conflict occurred in 1775. The map is oriented with North to the bottom and South to the top.]]
===Virgínia===
A la majoria de colònies els oficials britànics es van anar ràpidament quan els Patriots van prendre el control. A Virgínia, el governador reial va resistir. En l'incident de pólvora del 20 d'abril de 1775, Lord Dunmore, el governador reial de Virgínia, va eliminar la pólvora emmagatzemada a Williamsburg a un vaixell de guerra britànic al riu James. Dunmore va veure un malestar en la colònia i estava intentant privar a Virgínia milícia dels subministraments necessaris per a la insurrecció. La milícia patriota dirigida per Patrick Henry va obligar Dunmore a pagar la pólvora. Dunmore va continuar a caçar caché d’equips i subministraments militars durant els mesos següents, actes que a vegades eren previstos per la milícia de Patriot, que traslladaria subministraments abans de la seva arribada.<ref>John E. Selby, ''The Revolution in Virginia, 1775–1783'' (1988) ch. 1</ref>
30-In most colonies British officials quickly departed as the Patriots took control. In Virginia, the royal governor resisted. In the [[Gunpowder Incident]] of April 20, 1775, [[John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore|Lord Dunmore]], the [[Colonial government in the Thirteen Colonies|Royal Governor]] of [[Province of Virginia|Virginia]], removed gunpowder stored in [[Williamsburg, Virginia|Williamsburg]] to a British warship in the [[James River (Virginia)|James River]]. Dunmore saw rising unrest in the colony and was trying to deprive Virginia [[militia]] of supplies needed for insurrection. Patriot militia led by [[Patrick Henry]] forced Dunmore to pay for the gunpowder. Dunmore continued to hunt for caches of military equipment and supplies in the following months, acts that were sometimes anticipated by Patriot militia, who would move supplies before his arrival.
Dunmore va publicar una proclama d'emancipació el novembre de 1775, prometent la llibertat dels esclaus desbocats que lluitaven pels britànics. Després d’un incident al Kemp's Landing, al novembre, on les tropes de Dunmore van matar i capturar milicians Patriot, les forces patriotes van derrotar les tropes lleialistes (que incloïen esclaus fugitius que Dunmore havia format al seu regiment etíop) a la batalla del Gran Pont del 9 de desembre. Dunmore i les seves tropes es van retirar. als vaixells de la Royal Navy ancorats de Norfolk; aquestes forces navals van bombardejar i van cremar la ciutat l'1 de gener de 1776. Les forces patriotes de la ciutat van completar la destrucció de l'antiga fortalesa lleialista. Dunmore va ser conduït des d'una illa a la badia de Chesapeake aquell estiu i no va tornar mai a Virgínia.<ref>Selby, ''The Revolution in Virginia, 1775–1783'' (1988) ch. 2</ref>
29-Dunmore issued an [[Dunmore's Proclamation|emancipation proclamation]] in November 1775, promising freedom to runaway slaves who fought for the British. After an [[Battle of Kemp's Landing|incident at Kemp's Landing]] in November where Dunmore's troops killed and captured Patriot militiamen, Patriot forces defeated Loyalist troops (which included runaway slaves Dunmore had formed into his [[Ethiopian Regiment]]) at the [[Battle of Great Bridge]] on December 9. Dunmore and his troops retreated to [[Royal Navy]] ships anchored off [[Norfolk, Virginia|Norfolk]]; these naval forces [[Burning of Norfolk|bombarded and burned the town]] on January 1, 1776. Patriot forces in the town completed the destruction of the former Loyalist stronghold. Dunmore was driven from an island in [[Chesapeake Bay]] that summer, and never returned to Virginia.
===Geòrgia===
El governador reial de Geòrgia, James Wright, va romandre en el poder fins al gener de 1776, quan l'arribada inesperada dels vaixells britànics a prop de Savannah va impulsar el Comitè de Seguretat local a ordenar la seva detenció. Patriotes i fidelistes de Geòrgia creien que la flota havia arribat per proporcionar suport militar al governador; havia estat enviat des de les forces britàniques assetjades a Boston, Massachusetts per adquirir arròs i altres provisions. Wright va escapar de la captivitat i va arribar a la flota. A la batalla dels arrossars a principis de març, els britànics van abandonar amb èxit Savannah amb diversos vaixells mercants que contenien els subministraments d'arròs desitjats.
28-[[Georgia (U. S. state)|Georgia]]'s royal governor, [[James Wright (governor)|James Wright]], nominally remained in power until January 1776, when the unexpected arrival of British ships near [[Savannah, Georgia|Savannah]] prompted the local [[Committee of Safety (American Revolution)|Committee of Safety]] to order his arrest. Georgia Patriots and Loyalists alike believed the fleet had arrived to provide military support to the governor; it had been sent from the [[Siege of Boston|besieged]] British forces in [[Boston, Massachusetts]] to acquire rice and other provisions. Wright escaped captivity and reached the fleet. In the [[Battle of the Rice Boats]] in early March, the British successfully left Savannah with a number of merchant vessels containing the desired rice supplies.
===Carolina del Sud===
{{main|Snow Campaign|Battle of Sullivan's Island}}
[[File:SirHenryClinton.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[Henry Clinton (American War of Independence)|Sir Henry Clinton]] led the British land forces in the failed attack on Charleston.]]
La població de Carolina del Sud es va dividir políticament quan va començar la guerra. Les comunitats de les terres baixes, dominades per Charleston, eren fortament Patriot en la seva opinió, mentre que el país del darrere tenia un gran nombre de simpatitzants lleialistes.<ref>Alden, pp. 199–200</ref> A l'agost de 1775, ambdues parts reclutaren companyies de milícies.<ref>Cann, p. 204</ref> Al setembre, la milícia de Patriot es va apoderar de Fort Johnson, les principals obres de defensa de Charleston, i el governador William Campbell va fugir a la nau de la Royal Navy al port.<ref>McCrady, pp. 68–69</ref>
27-South Carolina's population was politically divided when the war began. The lowland communities, dominated by [[Charleston, South Carolina|Charleston]], were strongly Patriot in their views, while the back country held a large number of Loyalist sympathizers. By August 1775, both sides were recruiting militia companies. In September, Patriot militia seized [[Fort Johnson (South Carolina)|Fort Johnson]], Charleston's major defense works, and Governor [[Lord William Campbell|William Campbell]] fled to a Royal Navy ship in the harbor.
La confiscació per part dels fidels d’un enviament de pólvora i municions destinades als cherokee va provocar una escalada de les tensions que van provocar el primer setge dels noranta sis a l’oest de Carolina del Sud a finals de novembre.<ref>Cann, pp. 207–213</ref> El reclutament de patriotes va superar aleshores el dels lleialistes, i una important campanya (anomenada Campanya de Neus a causa de les nevades inusualment fortes) que van implicar fins a 5.000 patriotes dirigits pel coronel Richard Richardson van aconseguir capturar o allunyar la majoria de la direcció lleialista. Els lleialistes van fugir, cap a l'est de Florida o cap a les terres de Cherokee. Una facció de Cherokee, coneguda com la Chickamauga, es va aixecar en suport dels britànics i lleialistes el 1776. Finalment van ser derrotats per les forces de la milícia de Carolina del Nord i del Sud.
26-The seizure by Loyalists of a shipment of gunpowder and ammunition intended for the [[Cherokee people|Cherokee]] caused an escalation in tensions that led to the [[Siege of Savage's Old Fields|First Siege of Ninety Six]] in western South Carolina late November. Patriot recruiting was by then outstripping that of the Loyalists, and a major campaign (called the [[Snow Campaign]] due to unusually heavy snowfall) involving as many as 5,000 Patriots led by Colonel [[Richard Richardson (military officer)|Richard Richardson]] succeeded in capturing or driving away most of the Loyalist leadership. Loyalists fled, either to [[East Florida]] or to the Cherokee lands. A faction of the Cherokee, known as the [[Chickamauga Cherokee|Chickamauga]], rose up in support of the British and Loyalists in 1776. They were finally defeated by militia forces from North and South Carolina.
En qualsevol intent britànic de control del sud fou fonamental la possessió d'un port per tal d'oferir homes i homes. Amb aquesta finalitat, els britànics van organitzar una expedició per establir un lloc fort en algun lloc de les colònies del sud i van enviar caps militars a reclutar lleialistes a Carolina del Nord. La sortida de l'expedició d'Europa va endarrerir-se significativament i la força lleialista que va ser reclutada per conèixer-la va ser derrotada decisivament a la batalla del pont del cala de Moore a finals de febrer de 1776. Quan el general Henry Clinton va arribar a Cape Fear, Carolina del Nord, al maig. es van trobar les condicions idònies per a una publicació forta. El rastreig de la Royal Navy va identificar Charleston, les defenses de les quals no estaven acabades i semblaven vulnerables, com una ubicació més adequada. El juny de 1776, Clinton i l'almirall Sir Peter Parker van dirigir un assalt al fort Sullivan, que custodiava el port de Charleston.
25-Crucial in any British attempt to gain control of [[Southern United States|the South]] was the possession of a port to bring in supplies and men. To this end, the British organized an expedition to establish a strong post somewhere in the southern colonies, and sent military leaders to recruit Loyalists in North Carolina. The expedition's departure from Europe was significantly delayed, and the Loyalist force that was recruited to meet it was decisively defeated in the [[Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge]] in late February 1776. When General [[Henry Clinton (American War of Independence)|Henry Clinton]] arrived at [[Cape Fear (headland)|Cape Fear]], North Carolina, in May, he found conditions there unsuitable for a strong post. Scouting by the Royal Navy identified Charleston, whose defenses were unfinished and seemed vulnerable, as a more suitable location. In June 1776, Clinton and Admiral [[Sir Peter Parker, 1st Baronet|Sir Peter Parker]] led an [[Battle of Sullivan's Island|assault on Fort Sullivan]], which guarded the Charleston harbor.
Clinton no havia ordenat un complet reconeixement de la zona. La seva força de 2.200 homes va ser desembarcada a Long Island (contigua a l'illa de Sullivan en la qual estava situat el fort), i van trobar el canal que dividia les dues illes massa profundament per cercar.<ref>Bicheno, H: ''Rebels and Redcoats'', p.158</ref> En lloc de tornar a embarcar-se en els seus vaixells, va confiar en les forces navals de l'expedició per reduir el fort, que es va fer conegut després de la guerra com a Fort Moultrie. No obstant això, la força de foc dels vaixells britànics no va poder deixar cap impressió en els troncs esponjosos del palmetto que formaven la majoria de les defenses del fort, i el bombardeig va fallar en el seu objectiu.<ref>Hibbert, C: ''Rebels and Redcoats'', p.106</ref> Va ser un fracàs humiliant, i Clinton va cridar la seva campanya a les Carolines.<ref name="Jstor link">Kepner, F, "A British View of the Siege of Charleston, 1776", ''The Journal of Southern History'', Vol. 11, No. 1. (Feb., 1945), p. 94 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2197961 Jstor link]</ref> Clinton i Parker van discutir després del compromís, culpant a l’altre el fracàs de l’assalt.<ref name="Jstor link" /> Es debat que el sud es va perdre per aquest fracàs de prendre Charleston el 1776, ja que va deixar als lleialistes sense suport durant tres anys, alhora que va permetre al port de Charleston servir la causa nord-americana fins al 1780.<ref>Bicheno, H: ''Rebels and Redcoats'', p.154, 158</ref>
24-Clinton had failed to order a complete reconnaissance of the area. His 2,200 men force was landed on Long Island (adjacent to Sullivan's Island on which the fort was positioned), and they found the channel dividing the two islands too deep to ford. Instead of re-embarking on his boats, he relied on the expedition's naval forces to reduce the fort, which became known after the war as [[Fort Moultrie]]. However, the firepower of the British ships was unable to make an impression on the spongy palmetto logs that formed the majority of the fort's defenses, and the bombardment failed in its objective. It was a humiliating failure, and Clinton called off his campaign in the Carolinas. Clinton and Parker argued after the engagement, each blaming the other for the failure of the assault. It is debated that the South was lost by this failure to take Charleston in 1776, as it left the Loyalists unsupported for three years, while allowing the port of Charleston to serve the American cause until 1780.
=== Intents fallits a l'est de la Florida britànica ===
Els patriotes a Geòrgia van intentar derrotar diverses vegades la guarnició britànica que es basava a Sant Agustí a l'est de la Florida britànica. Aquesta guarnició va recolzar activament les activitats dels fidels que s'hi van fugir de Geòrgia i d'altres estats del sud, i van ser responsables de l'assalt de bestiar i d'altres subministraments al sud de Geòrgia. El primer intent va ser organitzat per Charles Lee després que prengués el comandament del departament sud de l'exèrcit continental, però es va expulsar quan va ser revocat a l'exèrcit principal. El segon intent va ser organitzat pel governador de Geòrgia Button Gwinnett amb l'ajuda mínima del nou comandant del departament del sud, Robert Howe, el 1777. Aquesta expedició també va fallar. Gwinnett i el seu comandant de la milícia, Lachlan McIntosh, no van poder pactar res. Algunes empreses de milícies de Geòrgia van arribar a l'est de Florida, però van ser revisades a la batalla de maig de Thomas Creek. La darrera expedició va ser a principis del 1778. Es van aixecar més de 2.000 continentals i milícies estatals per a l’esforç, però també va fracassar a causa dels problemes de comandament entre Howe i el governador de Geòrgia, John Houstoun.<ref>Coleman, K: ''A History of Georgia'', pp.77-78</ref> Un breu escaramussament a Alligator Bridge a finals de juny, combinat amb malalties tropicals i problemes de comandament a les forces del Patriot, va deixar l'est de Florida fermament en mans britàniques durant la guerra.
23-Patriots in Georgia attempted several times to defeat the British garrison that was based at [[Saint Augustine, Florida|Saint Augustine]] in British [[East Florida]]. This garrison actively supported the activities of Loyalists who fled there from Georgia and other southern states, and were responsible for raiding cattle and other supplies in southern Georgia. The first attempt was organized by [[Charles Lee (general)|Charles Lee]] after he took command of the [[Continental Army]]'s Southern Department, but sputtered out when he was recalled to the main army. The second attempt was organized by Georgia Governor [[Button Gwinnett]] with minimal help from the new commander of the Southern Department, [[Robert Howe (Continental Army officer)|Robert Howe]], in 1777. This expedition also failed. Gwinnett and his militia commander, [[Lachlan McIntosh]], could not agree on anything. Some Georgia militia companies made it into East Florida, but they were checked in the May [[Battle of Thomas Creek]]. The last expedition was in early 1778. More than 2,000 Continentals and state militia were raised for the effort, but it also failed due to issues of command between Howe and Georgia governor [[John Houstoun]]. A [[Battle of Alligator Bridge|brief skirmish at Alligator Bridge]] in late June, combined with tropical diseases and command issues in the Patriot forces, left East Florida firmly in British hands for the war's duration.
== La campanya britànica al sud ==
=== La qüestió lleialista ===
El 1778, els britànics van tornar a dirigir la seva atenció cap al sud, on esperaven recuperar el control reclutant milers de lleialistes. La seva creença en el suport generalista es basava en els comptes d'exiliats lleialistes a Londres que tenien accés directe al secretari d'estat britànic d'Amèrica, George Germain.<ref>{{cite Q|Q59397598}}</ref> Apassionats de recuperar les seves terres i ser recompensats per la seva lleialtat a la corona, aquests homes es van adonar que la millor manera de convèncer els britànics de realitzar una operació important al sud seria exagerar el nivell de suport fidelista. Com a grup, van tenir una gran influència sobre els ministres britànics a Londres.<ref>Ritcheson, C.; "Loyalist Influence on British Policy Toward the United States After the American Revolution"; ''Eighteenth-Century Studies''; Vol. 7, No. 1; Autumn, 1973; p. 6. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3031609 Jstor link]</ref> A més, hi havia forts lligams comercials, comercials i familiars entre alguns fidels i els britànics a Londres. Els britànics operaven amb l'esperança de trobar un suport substancial per a les seves accions, si només alliberaven les zones adequades. Mentre es trobava a Carolina del Sud, Cornwallis va escriure en una carta a Clinton que ''«Les nostres garanties d'afectació dels nostres pobres amics angoixats a Carolina del Nord són tan fortes com mai»''.<ref>[http://www.clements.umich.edu/ "Letter from Cornwallis to Clinton, August 6th 1780"], Clinton Papers; Clements Library, University of Michigan.</ref> En bona part, aquest supòsit era incorrecte, ja que Cornwallis aviat es va adonar a mesura que avançava la campanya.<ref>Wickwire; ''Cornwallis, the American Adventure''; p.315.</ref>
22-In 1778, the British again turned their attention to the South, where they hoped to regain control by recruiting thousands of Loyalists. Their belief in widespread Loyalist support was based on the accounts of Loyalist exiles in London who had direct access to the British Secretary of State for America, [[George Germain]]. Keen to recover their lands and be rewarded for their loyalty to the crown, these men realized that the best way to convince the British to undertake a major operation in the South would be to exaggerate the level of potential Loyalist support. As a group, they had great influence on the British ministers in London. In addition, there were strong business, trading and family ties among some Loyalists and the British in London. The British operated under the expectation that they would find substantial support for their actions, if only they liberated the right areas. While in South Carolina, Cornwallis wrote in a letter to Clinton that "Our assurances of attachment from our poor distressed friends in North Carolina are as strong as ever." For the most part, this assumption was incorrect, as Cornwallis soon realized as the campaign progressed.
=== Els britànics prenen Savannah ===
[[File:Benjamin lincoln by charles wilson peale.jpg|thumb|right|Portrait of General [[Benjamin Lincoln]]; by [[Charles Willson Peale]]]]
El 19 d'abril de 1778, tres galeres filaes de l'Armada de Geòrgia van comprometre, van derrotar i van capturar una brigantina de la Marina Reial, una bandera provincial de l'est de la Florida britànica i un bergantí armat.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wood|first1=Virginia Steele|title=The Georgia Navy's Dramatic Victory of April 19, 1778|journal=Georgia Historical Quarterly|date=2006|volume=90|issue=2|pages=165–195|url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=21375299&site=eds-live&scope=site|accessdate=15 February 2018}}</ref>
21-On April 19, 1778, three row galleys of the Georgia Navy engaged, defeated, and captured a Royal Navy [[brigantine]], an armed British East Florida provincial sloop, and an armed brig.
El 29 de desembre de 1778, un cos expedicionari britànic de 3.500 homes procedents de Nova York, sota el comandament del tinent coronel Archibald Campbell, va capturar Savannah, Geòrgia. A mitjan mitjans de gener de 1779 se li va incorporar el general de brigada Augustine Prevost, dirigint les tropes que van marxar des de Sant Agustí, prenent avantatges al llarg del camí. Prevost va assumir el comandament de les forces a Geòrgia; i va enviar Campbell amb 1.000 homes cap a Augusta amb els objectius de controlar la ciutat i el reclutament de lleialistes.<ref name="Morill46_7">[[#Morrill|Morrill (1993)]], pp. 46–47</ref>
20-On December 29, 1778, a British expeditionary corps of 3,500 men from New York, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel [[Archibald Campbell (British Army officer)|Archibald Campbell]], [[Capture of Savannah|captured Savannah, Georgia]]. He was joined in mid-January 1779 by Brigadier General [[Augustine Prevost]], leading troops that marched up from [[Saint Augustine, Florida|Saint Augustine]], taking over outposts along the way. Prevost assumed command of the forces in Georgia; and dispatched Campbell with 1,000 men toward [[Augusta, Georgia|Augusta]] with the goals of gaining control of that town and the recruitment of Loyalists.
Les restes de la defensa de Savannah es van retirar a Purrysburg, Carolina del Sud, a uns 12 mil (19 km) ascendents des de Savannah, on van ser coneguts pel Major General Benjamin Lincoln, comandant de les forces de l'exèrcit continental al sud. Va marxar la major part de l'exèrcit des de Charleston, Carolina del Sud en un moviment destinat a controlar i oposar-se a Prevost. A principis de febrer de 1779, Prevost va enviar uns centenars d’homes a ocupar Beaufort en un moviment que probablement volia desviar l’atenció de Lincoln dels moviments de Campbell; Lincoln va respondre enviant-lo al general Moultrie i 300 homes perquè els expulsessin. La batalla de Beaufort va ser en gran part indecisa i tots dos contingents van tornar a les seves bases.
19-The remnants of the defense of Savannah had retreated to [[Purrysburg, South Carolina]], about {{convert|12|mi|km}} upriver from Savannah, where they were met by Major General [[Benjamin Lincoln]], commander of Continental Army forces in the South. He marched most of the army from Charleston, South Carolina in a move intended to monitor and oppose Prevost. Early in February, 1779, Prevost sent a few hundred men to occupy [[Beaufort, South Carolina|Beaufort]] in a move probably intended to divert Lincoln's attention from Campbell's movements; Lincoln responded by sending General Moultrie and 300 men to drive them out. The [[Battle of Beaufort]] was largely indecisive, and both contingents eventually returned to their bases.
Mentrestant, Campbell havia pres el control d'Augusta sense gaire resistència i els lleialistes començaven a aparèixer. Mentre que va inscriure més de 1.000 homes durant un període de dues setmanes, va ser impotent per evitar la derrota d'un nombre important de fidels per part de la milícia patriota sota Andrew Pickens el 14 de febrer de 1779, a la batalla de Kettle Creek, 50 mil (80 km) ) d'Augusta. Això va demostrar a tots els habitants de la zona els límits de la capacitat de l'exèrcit britànic de protegir els fidels. Campbell va sortir sobtadament d'Augusta, aparentment com a resposta a l'arribada de John Ashe i més de 1.000 milícies de Carolina del Nord, Lincoln va enviar a sumar-se a les milícies que ja hi havia al riu d'Augusta, a Carolina del Sud. A la tornada a Sabana, Campbell va cedir el comandament dels seus homes al germà d'Augustino Prevost, Mark. El jove Prevost va girar les taules a Ashe, que el seguia cap al sud, sorprenent i gairebé destruint la seva força de 1.300 en la batalla del Brier Creek del 3 de març.<ref name="Morrill48_0">[[#Morrill|Morrill (1993)]], pp. 48–50</ref>
18-In the meantime, Campbell had taken control of Augusta without much resistance, and Loyalists were beginning to turn out. While he enrolled more than 1,000 men over a two-week period, he was powerless to prevent the defeat of a sizable number of Loyalists by Patriot militia under [[Andrew Pickens (congressman)|Andrew Pickens]] in the February 14, 1779, [[Battle of Kettle Creek]], {{convert|50|mi|km}} from Augusta. This demonstrated to everyone in the area the limits of the British Army's ability to protect Loyalists. Campbell suddenly left Augusta, apparently in response to the arrival of [[John Ashe (general)|John Ashe]] and more than 1,000 North Carolina militia Lincoln sent to add to the 1,000 militia that were already across the river from Augusta in South Carolina. On the way back to Savannah, Campbell turned over command of his men to Augustine Prevost's brother, [[Mark Prevost|Mark]]. The younger Prevost turned the tables on Ashe, who was following him south, surprising and very nearly destroying his force of 1,300 in the March 3 [[Battle of Brier Creek]].
====El segon atac a Charleston====
A l'abril, Lincoln havia estat reforçada per un gran nombre de milícies de Carolina del Sud i va rebre subministraments militars addicionals a través d'enviaments holandesos a Charleston. Va decidir anar cap a Augusta. Deixant 1.000 homes sota el comandament del general Moultrie a Purrysburg per controlar Augustine Prevost, va començar la marxa cap al nord el 23 d'abril de 1779. La reacció de Prevost va ser conduir a 2.500 homes de Savannah cap a Purrysburg el 29 d'abril. Moultrie va caure cap a Charleston en lloc de participar. , i Prevost es trobava a 10 quilòmetres (10 km) el 10 de maig abans de començar a veure resistència. Dos dies després, va interceptar un missatge que indicava que Lincoln, alertat de l'avanç de Prevost, es precipitava des d'Augusta per ajudar a la defensa de Charleston. Prevost es va retirar a les illes al sud-oest de Charleston, deixant una guàrdia atrinxerada a Stono Ferry (prop de l'actual Rantowles, Carolina del Sud) per cobrir la seva retirada. Quan Lincoln va tornar a Charleston va dirigir uns 1.200 homes, la majoria milícies sense intent, després de Prevost. Aquesta força va ser rebutjada pels britànics el 20 de juny de 1779, a la batalla de Stono Ferry. La guàrdia posterior, després d'haver aconseguit el seu objectiu, va abandonar aquest lloc pocs dies després.<ref name="Morrill53_4">[[#Morrill|Morrill (1993)]], pp. 53–54</ref> La incursió de Prevost contra Charleston va ser notable pel saqueig i saqueig arbitrari de la seva tropa, que va enfadar amic i enemic al país baix de Carolina del Sud.<ref>Wilson, p. 112</ref>
17-By April, Lincoln had been reinforced by large numbers of South Carolina militia and received additional military supplies through [[Dutch Republic|Dutch]] shipments to Charleston. He decided to move toward Augusta. Leaving 1,000 men under the command of General Moultrie at Purrysburg to monitor Augustine Prevost, he began the march north on April 23, 1779. Prevost's reaction was to lead 2,500 men from Savannah toward Purrysburg on April 29. Moultrie fell back toward Charleston rather than engaging, and Prevost was within {{convert|10|mi|km}} on May 10 before he began to see resistance. Two days later he intercepted a message indicating that Lincoln, alerted to Prevost's advance, was hurrying back from Augusta to assist in the defense of Charleston. Prevost retreated to the islands southwest of Charleston, leaving an entrenched guard at Stono Ferry (near present-day [[Rantowles, South Carolina]]) to cover his retreat. When Lincoln got back to Charleston he led about 1,200 men, mostly untried militia, after Prevost. This force was repulsed by the British on June 20, 1779, in the [[Battle of Stono Ferry]]. The rear guard, having succeeded in its objective, abandoned that post a few days later. Prevost's foray against Charleston was notable for his troop's arbitrary looting and pillaging, which enraged friend and foe alike in the South Carolina low country.
====La defensa de Savannah====
A l'octubre de 1779, les forces de l'exèrcit francès i continental van intentar recuperar Savannah. Sota el lideratge del general Lincoln, i amb l’assistència d’un esquadró naval francès comandat pel Comte d’Estaing, va ser un fracàs espectacular. Les forces franceses i nord-americanes combinades van patir unes 901 víctimes, a causa dels 54 britànics.<ref>Hibbert, C.; ''Rebels and Redcoats''; p. 246.</ref> L’armada francesa va trobar fortificacions de Savannah similars a les que havien desafiat l’almirall Peter Parker a Charleston el 1776. El bombardeig d’artilleria va tenir poc efectes en les defenses, però a diferència de Charleston ... on Clinton va decidir contra atacar Fort Moultrie per terra: Estaing va decidir pressionar l'assalt després que el bombardeig naval fracassés.<ref>Hibbert, C.; ''Rebels and Redcoats''; p. 245.</ref> En aquest assalt, el comte Kazimierz Pułaski, el comandant polonès de cavalleria nord-americana, va resultar ferit fatal.<ref>Rodgers, T.; "Siege of Savannah During the American Revolutionary War"; ''Military History''; March 1997; p. 6. [http://www.historynet.com/historical_conflicts/3035791.html?page=1&c=y HistoryNet resource] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930215850/http://www.historynet.com/historical_conflicts/3035791.html?page=1&c=y |date=2007-09-30 }}</ref> Amb Savannah assegurada, Clinton va poder llançar un nou assalt a Charleston, Carolina del Sud, on havia fracassat el 1776. Lincoln va traslladar les seves tropes restants a Charleston per ajudar en la construcció de les seves defenses.<ref>Bicheno, H: ''Rebels and Redcoats'', p.166</ref>
16-In October 1779, [[France|French]] and Continental Army forces tried to [[Siege of Savannah|retake Savannah]]. Under the leadership of General Lincoln, and with the assistance of a French naval [[squadron (naval)|squadron]] commanded by [[Charles Hector, comte d'Estaing|Comte d'Estaing]], it was a spectacular failure. The combined French-American forces suffered some 901 casualties, to the British 54. The French Navy found Savannah's fortifications similar to those that had defied Admiral [[Sir Peter Parker, 1st Baronet|Peter Parker]] at Charleston in 1776. The artillery bombardment had little effect on the defenses, but unlike Charleston—where Clinton decided against attacking [[Fort Moultrie]] by land—Estaing decided to press the assault after the naval bombardment had failed. In this assault, Count [[Kazimierz Pułaski]], the Polish commander of American [[cavalry]], was fatally wounded. With Savannah secured, Clinton could launch a new assault on Charleston, South Carolina, where he had failed in 1776. Lincoln moved his remaining troops to Charleston to assist in the construction of its defenses.
====El tercer atac a Charleston====
{{main|Siege of Charleston}}
Clinton es va desplaçar contra Charleston el 1780, bloquejant el port al març i construint prop de 10.000 soldats a la zona. El seu avenç sobre la ciutat va ser incontestat; el comandant naval nord-americà, el comodor Abraham Whipple, va escorcollar cinc de les seves vuit fragates al port per fer un auge per a la seva defensa.<ref>Bicheno, H: ''Rebels and Redcoats'', p.171</ref> A l’interior de la ciutat, el general Lincoln comandava uns 2.650 continentals i 2.500 milicians. Quan el coronel britànic Banastre Tarleton va tallar les línies de subministrament de la ciutat en victòries a Moncks Corner a l'abril i el transbordador de Lenud a principis de maig,<ref>Wickwire, ''Cornwallis, the American Adventure'', p.131</ref> Charleston es va veure envoltada.<ref>Hibbert, C, ''Rebels and Redcoats, p.266</ref> Clinton va començar a construir línies de setge. L’11 de març va iniciar el bombardeig de la ciutat.<ref>''The Siege of Charleston; Journal of Captain Peter Russell, December 25, 1779, to May 2, 1780''; ''The American Historical Review''; Vol. 4, No. 3; Apr., 1899; p. 490. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1833434 Jstor link]</ref>
15-Clinton moved against Charleston in 1780, blockading the harbor in March and building up about 10,000 troops in the area. His advance on the city was uncontested; the American naval commander, Commodore [[Abraham Whipple]], scuttled five of his eight frigates in the harbor to make a boom for its defense. Inside the city, General Lincoln commanded about 2,650 Continentals and 2,500 militiamen. When British [[colonel]] [[Banastre Tarleton]] cut off the city's supply lines in victories at [[Battle of Monck's Corner|Moncks Corner]] in April and [[Battle of Lenud's Ferry|Lenud's Ferry]] in early May, Charleston was surrounded. Clinton began constructing siege lines. On March 11 he commenced the bombardment of the town.
El 12 de maig de 1780, el general Lincoln va rendir els seus 5.000 homes, la major rendició de les tropes dels Estats Units fins a la Guerra Civil dels Estats Units.<ref>Boatner; ''Encyclopedia of the American Revolution''; p. 213.</ref> Amb relativament poques víctimes, Clinton havia capturat la ciutat i el port més gran del sud, aconseguint potser la major victòria britànica de la guerra. Aquesta victòria va deixar en ruïnes l'estructura militar nord-americana del sud. Va ser només després que Nathanael Greene va passar per davant de Cornwallis després de la batalla del jutjat de Guilford de 1781, quan els britànics van perdre finalment aquest avantatge al sud.<ref>Mackey, ''The War for America'', 1964</ref>
14-On May 12, 1780, General Lincoln surrendered his 5,000 men—the largest surrender of U.S. troops until the [[American Civil War]]. With relatively few casualties, Clinton had seized the South's biggest city and seaport, winning perhaps the greatest British victory of the war. This victory left the American military structure in the South in ruins. It was only after [[Nathanael Greene]] slipped past Cornwallis after the [[Battle of Guilford Courthouse]] in 1781 that the British finally lost this advantage in the South.
Els restes de l'exèrcit continental del sud van començar a retirar-se cap a Carolina del Nord, però van ser perseguits pel coronel Tarleton, que els va derrotar a la batalla de Waxhaws el 29 de maig. Els historiadors han debatut els comptes difosos després de la batalla que les forces de Tarleton havien massacrat a molts patriotes després que s’havia rendit. Com a conseqüència, "Bloody Tarleton" o "Bloody Ban" es van convertir en un nom odiat, i la frase "quarter of Tarleton" –referint-se a la seva reputada falta de misericòrdia o "quarter" ([[guerra sense quarter]])- va esdevenir un crit de manifestació per als patriotes. Tant si la batalla va ser o no la massacre que es reivindicava, les ramificacions es van sentir durant tota la campanya. Quan una milícia lleialista es va rendir al final de la batalla de Kings Mountain, molts d'ells van ser assassinats quan els marques Patriot van continuar disparant mentre cridaven "els quarters de Tarleton!".<ref>Wickwire; ''Cornwallis, the American Adventure''; p. 258,</ref> Tarleton després va publicar un relat de la guerra que va aclarir les acusacions de mala conducta a la milícia nord-americana i el va retratar amb una llum positiva.<ref>Tarleton; ''A History of the Campaigns of 1780 and 1781 in the Southern Provinces of North America''; 1787.</ref>
13-The remnants of the southern Continental Army began to withdraw toward North Carolina, but were pursued by Colonel Tarleton, who defeated them at the [[Waxhaw Massacre|Battle of Waxhaws]] on May 29. Historians have debated accounts spread after the battle that Tarleton's forces had massacred many Patriots after they had surrendered. As a consequence, "Bloody Tarleton" or "Bloody Ban" became a hated name, and the phrase, "Tarleton's quarter"—referring to his reputed lack of mercy, or "[[no quarter|quarter]]"—soon became a rallying cry for the Patriots. Whether or not the battle was the massacre that it was claimed, its ramifications were felt throughout the campaign. When a Loyalist militia surrendered at the end of the [[Battle of Kings Mountain]], many of them were killed when Patriot marksmen continued to fire while shouting "Tarleton's Quarters!". Tarleton later published an account of the war that glossed over accusations of misconduct towards American militia, and portrayed him in an unabashedly positive light.
=== Cornwallis pren el comandament ===
[[File:Lord Cornwallis.jpg|thumb|[[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Lord Cornwallis]] took command when Sir Henry Clinton sailed for New York.|alt=]]Després de Charleston, l'activitat militar nord-americana organitzada pràcticament es va ensorrar. Els estats van exercir les seves funcions governamentals, i la guerra va ser a càrrec de partidaris com Francis Marion, Thomas Sumter, William R. Davie, Andrew Pickens i Elijah Clarke. El general Clinton va lliurar a Lord Cornwallis les operacions britàniques al sud. El Congrés continental va enviar al general Horatio Gates, el vencedor de Saratoga, al sud amb un nou exèrcit, però Gates va patir de seguida una de les pitjors derrotes de la història militar dels Estats Units a la batalla de Camden (16 d'agost de 1780). Cornualles es disposava a envair Carolina del Nord.<ref>Jim Piecuch, ''The Battle of Camden'' (2006).</ref>
12-After Charleston, organized American military activity in the South virtually collapsed. The states carried on their governmental functions, and the war was carried on by [[Partisan (military)|partisans]] such as [[Francis Marion]], [[Thomas Sumter]], [[William R. Davie]], [[Andrew Pickens (congressman)|Andrew Pickens]], and [[Elijah Clarke]]. General Clinton turned over British operations in the South to Lord Cornwallis. The [[Continental Congress]] dispatched General [[Horatio Gates]], the victor of Saratoga, to the South with a new army, but Gates promptly suffered one of the worst defeats in U.S. military history at the [[Battle of Camden]] (August 16, 1780). Cornwallis prepared to invade North Carolina.
Els intents de Cornwallis de fer créixer els lleialistes en gran quantitat a Carolina del Nord van ser aplastats efectivament quan la milícia patriota va derrotar una força més gran de lleialistes a la Batalla de Kings Mountain el 7 d'octubre de 1780. Molts dels homes patriotes havien creuat les muntanyes Apalaques del districte de Washington. de Carolina del Nord per lluitar contra els britànics, i van ser anomenats així els homes Overmountain. El pla britànic d'aixecar grans exèrcits lleialistes va fracassar; no hi havia suficients lleialistes alistats, i els que ho feien corrien un gran risc una vegada que l'exèrcit britànic va passar. La derrota a Kings Mountain i l’assetjament continu de les seves línies de comunicacions i subministrament per part de les forces de la milícia de Carolina del Sud van obligar Cornwallis a retirar-se i a hivernar a Carolina del Sud.
11-Cornwallis' attempts to raise Loyalists in large numbers in North Carolina were effectively crushed when Patriot militia defeated a larger force of Loyalists in the [[Battle of Kings Mountain]] on October 7, 1780. Many of the Patriot men had crossed the [[Appalachian Mountains]] from the [[Washington District, North Carolina|Washington District of North Carolina]] to fight the British, and were so named the [[Overmountain Men]]. The British plan to raise large Loyalist armies failed—not enough Loyalists enlisted, and those who did were at high risk once the British army moved on. The defeat at Kings Mountain and the continuing harassment of his communications and supply lines by militia forces in South Carolina forced Cornwallis to withdraw and winter in South Carolina.
Gates va ser substituït pel subordinat més fiable de Washington, el general Nathanael Greene. Greene va assignar al voltant de 1.000 homes al general Daniel Morgan, un magnífic tàctic que va aixafar les tropes de Tarleton a la batalla de Cowpens el 17 de gener de 1781. Al cap de Kings Mountain, Cornwallis va ser criticat per haver tret part del seu exèrcit sense el suport adequat. Greene va procedir a enderrocar els seus oponents en una sèrie d'escaramusses i moviments militars coneguts com la "Carrera pel Dan" (anomenat així perquè el riu Dan flueix a prop de la frontera entre Carolina del Nord i Virgínia); cada trobada va suposar una victòria tàctica per als britànics, però no els va oferir cap avantatge estratègic, mentre que l'atitud va afectar.
10-Gates was replaced by Washington's most dependable subordinate, General [[Nathanael Greene]]. Greene assigned about 1,000 men to General [[Daniel Morgan]], a superb tactician who crushed Tarleton's troops at the [[Battle of Cowpens]] on January 17, 1781. As after Kings Mountain, Cornwallis was later criticized for detaching part of his army without adequate support.<ref>Clinton, H.; ''The American Rebellion''; 1783.</ref> Greene proceeded to wear down his opponents in a series of skirmishes and military movements referred to as the "Race to the Dan" (so named because the [[Dan River]] flows close to the border between North Carolina and Virginia); each encounter resulted in a tactical victory for the British but gave them no strategic advantage, while attrition took its toll.<ref>Terry Golway, ''Washington's General: Nathanael Greene and the Triumph of the American Revolution'' (2005) ch 10.</ref>
Cornwallis sabia que Greene havia dividit les seves forces i volia enfrontar-se al contingent de Morgan o de Greene abans que poguessin tornar a unir-se. Va despullar el seu exèrcit de qualsevol excés d'equipatge per intentar mantenir-se al dia amb els Patriots que es movien ràpidament. Quan Greene es va assabentar d'aquesta decisió, la seva contundent resposta va ser "Llavors, és nostre!"<ref name="Morrill140">[[#Morrill|Morrill (1993)]], p. 140</ref> La manca de disposicions de Cornwallis va tenir un paper en les seves dificultats posteriors.
9-Cornwallis knew that Greene had divided his forces and wanted to face either Morgan's or Greene's contingent before they could rejoin. He stripped his army of all excess baggage in an effort to keep up with the fast-moving Patriots. When Greene learned of this decision, his gleeful response was "Then, he is ours!" Cornwallis' lack of provisions as a consequence played a role in his later difficulties.
Greene es va comprometre amb Cornwallis a la batalla de Ford de Cowan, on Greene havia enviat al general William Lee Davidson amb 900 homes. Quan Davidson va ser assassinat al riu, els nord-americans es van retirar. Greene es va afeblir, però va continuar les seves tàctiques endarrerides, lluitant una dotzena d’escaramusses més a Carolina del Sud i del Nord contra les forces de Cornwallis. Al voltant de 2.000 soldats britànics van morir en aquests fets. Greene va resumir el seu plantejament en un lema que es faria famós: "Lluitem, bategem, ens aixequem i tornem a lluitar". Les seves tàctiques s’assemblen a l’estratègia fabiana de Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, el general romà que va desgastar les forces superiors del Hannibal cartaginès per una lenta [[Guerra de desgast (tàctica militar)|guerra de desgast]].<ref>[[Livy]]; ''ad Urbe Cond.''; xii, xviii.</ref> Greene finalment es va sentir prou fort per enfrontar-se directament a Cornwallis, a prop de New Garden, Carolina del Nord (modern Greensboro, Carolina del Nord). Tot i que Cornwallis va ser el vencedor tàctic a la batalla de la Casa de la Cort de Guilford, les víctimes que va patir l'exèrcit el van obligar a retirar-se a Wilmington, Carolina del Nord, per a subministraments i reforços.<ref>Golway, ''Washington's General: Nathanael Greene and the Triumph of the American Revolution'' (2005) pp 248-60.</ref>
8-Greene first engaged Cornwallis in the [[Battle of Cowan's Ford]], where Greene had sent General [[William Lee Davidson]] with 900 men. When Davidson was killed in the river, the Americans retreated. Greene was weakened, but he continued his delaying tactics, fighting a dozen more skirmishes in South and North Carolina against Cornwallis' forces. About 2,000 British troops died in these engagements. Greene summed up his approach in a motto that would become famous: "We fight, get beat, rise, and fight again." His tactics have been likened to the [[Fabian strategy]] of [[Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus]], the Roman general who wore down the superior forces of the Carthaginian [[Hannibal Barca|Hannibal]] by a slow [[War of Attrition|war of attrition]]. Greene eventually felt strong enough to face Cornwallis directly—near New Garden, North Carolina (modern day [[Greensboro, North Carolina]]). Although Cornwallis was the tactical victor in the [[Battle of Guilford Court House]], the casualties his army suffered forced him to retreat to [[Wilmington, North Carolina]], for resupply and reinforcements.
Si bé Cornwallis no va poder destruir completament Greene, va reconèixer que la majoria dels subministraments que confiaven les forces nord-americanes provenien de Virgínia, un estat que fins a la data de la guerra havia estat relativament intacte. Contra els desitjos de Clinton, Cornwallis va decidir envair Virgínia amb l'esperança que tallar les línies de subministrament a les Carolinas impossibilitaria la resistència nord-americana.<ref>Cornwallis; ''An Answer to Sir Henry Clinton's Narrative''. Note: Cornwallis wrote this pamphlet shortly after the war in explanation of his actions.</ref> Aquesta teoria va comptar amb el suport de Lord George Germain en una sèrie de cartes que van deixar Clinton fora del procés de presa de decisions de l'exèrcit del sud, malgrat ser el seu comandant general.<ref>Cornwallis Correspondence, [http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/default.htm Public Record Office]</ref> Sense informar-se de Clinton, Cornwallis va marxar al nord de Wilmington cap a Virgínia per participar en operacions d'atac,<ref>Clinton, H.; ''The American Rebellion''. Note: This lack of notification was one of Sir Henry Clinton's main arguments in his own defense in the controversy that followed the surrender at Yorktown.</ref> on finalment es va trobar amb l'exèrcit comandat per William Phillips i Benedict Arnold, que s'hi havien dedicat a realitzar activitats d'assalt.<ref>Franklin B. Wickwire and Mary B. Wickwire. ''Cornwallis and the War of Independence'' (1971)</ref>
7-While Cornwallis was unable to completely destroy Greene, he recognized that most of the supplies that the American forces were relying on were coming from Virginia, a state that up to this point in the war had been relatively untouched. Against the wishes of Clinton, Cornwallis resolved to invade Virginia in the hopes that cutting the supply lines to the Carolinas would make American resistance there impossible. This theory was supported by [[Lord George Germain]] in a series of letters that left Clinton out of the decision-making process for the Southern Army, despite his nominally being its overall commander. Without informing Clinton, Cornwallis marched north from Wilmington into Virginia to engage in raiding operations, where he eventually met the army commanded by [[William Phillips (British Army officer)|William Phillips]] and [[Benedict Arnold]], which had engaged in raiding activities there.
Quan Cornwallis va deixar Greensboro cap a Wilmington, va deixar el camí obert perquè Greene comenci la reconquesta nord-americana de Carolina del Sud. Això va assolir a finals de juny, malgrat un revers que es va mantenir a les mans de Lord Rawdon a Hobkirk's Hill (2 milles al nord de Camden) el 25 d'abril. Del 22 de maig al 19 de juny de 1781 Greene va dirigir el setge de noranta-sis, que només es va veure obligat a abandonar quan va arribar la paraula que Rawdon portava tropes per alleujar el setge. Tot i això, les accions de comandants de Greene i milícies com Francis Marion van impulsar Rawdon per acabar abandonant el districte dels noranta i sis Camden, reduint efectivament la presència britànica a Carolina del Sud al port de Charleston. Augusta, Geòrgia també va ser assetjada el 22 de maig i va caure a les forces Patriot sota Andrew Pickens i Harry "Light Horse" Lee el 6 de juny, reduint la presència britànica en aquest estat al port de Savannah.<ref>George W. Kyte, "Strategic Blunder: Lord Cornwallis Abandons the Carolinas, 1781." ''Historian'' 22.2 (1960): 129-144.</ref>
6-When Cornwallis left Greensboro for Wilmington, he left the road open for Greene to begin the American reconquest of South Carolina. This he achieved by the end of June, in spite of a reverse sustained at [[Francis Rawdon-Hastings, 1st Marquess of Hastings|Lord Rawdon]]'s hands at [[Battle of Hobkirk's Hill|Hobkirk's Hill]] (2 miles north of [[Camden, South Carolina|Camden]]) on April 25. From May 22 to June 19, 1781 Greene led the [[Siege of Ninety-Six]], which he was only forced to abandon when word arrived that Rawdon was bringing troops to relieve the siege. However, the actions of Greene and militia commanders like Francis Marion drove Rawdon to eventually abandon the [[Ninety Six District]] and Camden, effectively reducing the British presence in South Carolina to the port of Charleston. Augusta, Georgia was [[Siege of Augusta|also besieged]] on May 22, and fell to Patriot forces under [[Andrew Pickens (congressman)|Andrew Pickens]] and [[Henry Lee III|Harry "Light Horse" Lee]] on June 6, reducing the British presence in that state to the port of Savannah.
A continuació, Greene va donar descans a les seves forces a les altes colines del riu Santee. El 8 de setembre, amb 2.600 homes, va comprometre forces britàniques sota el tinent coronel Alexander Stewart a Eutaw Springs. Els nord-americans que van caure en aquesta batalla van ser immortalitzats per l’autor nord-americà Philip Freneau en el seu poema de 1781 "A la memòria dels nord-americans valents". La batalla, tot i que tàcticament va empatar, va debilitar els britànics que es van retirar a Charleston, on Greene els va fer càrrec durant els mesos restants de la guerra.<ref>Bicheno; 2001. Note: Bicheno strongly emphasizes that Cornwallis' absence from the South made the American reconquest merely a matter of time.</ref>
5-Greene then gave his forces a six weeks' rest on the High Hills of the [[Santee River]]. On September 8, with 2,600 men, he engaged British forces under Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Stewart at [[Battle of Eutaw Springs|Eutaw Springs]]. Americans who fell in this battle were immortalized by American author [[Philip Freneau]] in his 1781 poem "To the Memory of Brave Americans." The battle, although tactically a draw, so weakened the British that they withdrew to Charleston, where Greene penned them in for the remaining months of the war.
===Yorktown===
{{main|Siege of Yorktown}}
[[File:Reddition armee anglaise a Yorktown 1781 avec blocus naval.jpg|thumb|right|The surrender of British troops at Yorktown; French engraving; 1781]]
[[File:Surrender of Cornwallis.jpg|thumb|General Washington receives Cornwallis' sword from [[Charles O'Hara]]; sculpture from the facade of the [[United States Capitol|Capitol Building]] in Washington.]]
A l'arribada a Virgínia, Cornwallis va prendre el comandament de les forces britàniques existents a la regió, que havien estat comandades primer pel capotí Benoît Arnold, i després pel major general William Phillips. Phillips, un bon amic de Cornwallis, va morir dos dies abans que Cornwallis arribés a la seva posició a Petersburg.<ref>Wickwire; ''Cornwallis, The American Adventure''; 1970.</ref> Després d'haver marxat sense informar a Clinton dels seus moviments (les comunicacions entre els dos comandants britànics eren per mar i extremadament lentes, de vegades fins a tres setmanes), Cornwallis va enviar la paraula de la seva marxa cap al nord i va començar a destruir els subministraments nord-americans a la regió de Chesapeake.<ref>Benton Rain Patterson, ''Washington and Cornwallis: The Battle for America, 1775-1783'' (2017) pp 289-300.</ref>
4-Upon arrival in Virginia, Cornwallis took command of the existing British forces in the region, which had been commanded first by turncoat [[Benedict Arnold]], and then by [[Major General]] [[William Phillips (British Army officer)|William Phillips]]. Phillips, a good friend of Cornwallis, died two days before Cornwallis reached his position at [[Petersburg, Virginia|Petersburg]]. Having marched without informing Clinton of his movements (communications between the two British commanders was by sea and extremely slow, sometimes up to three weeks), Cornwallis sent word of his northward march and set about destroying American supplies in the [[Chesapeake Bay|Chesapeake]] region.
El març de 1781, en resposta a l'amenaça d'Arnold i Phillips, el general Washington havia enviat al marquès de Lafayette per defensar Virgínia. El jove francès tenia 3.200 homes al seu comandament, però les tropes britàniques a l'estat eren de 7.200. Lafayette va patinar amb Cornwallis, evitant una batalla decisiva mentre reunia reforços. Va ser durant aquest període quan Cornwallis va rebre les ordres de Clinton per triar una posició a la península de Virgínia -també esmentada a les cartes contemporànies com el "coll de Williamsburg" - i construir un lloc naval fortificat per aixoplugar els vaixells de la línia. En complir aquest ordre, Cornwallis es va posar en risc de quedar atrapat. Amb l'arribada de la flota francesa sota el Comte de Grasse i l'exèrcit francès-americà combinat del general Washington, Cornwallis es va veure tallat. Quan la flota de la Royal Navy, sota l'almirall Thomas Graves, va ser derrotada pels francesos a la batalla del Chesapeake, i un tren de setge francès va arribar des de Newport, Rhode Island, la seva posició va esdevenir insostenible. Cornwallis es va rendir al general Washington i al comandant francès el Comte de Rochambeau el 19 d'octubre de 1781.<ref>Patterson, ''Washington and Cornwallis: The Battle for America, 1775-1783'' (2017) pp 301-30.</ref>
3-In March 1781, in response to the threat of Arnold and Phillips, General Washington had dispatched the [[Marquis de Lafayette]] to defend Virginia. The young Frenchman had 3,200 men at his command, but British troops in the state totaled 7,200. Lafayette skirmished with Cornwallis, avoiding a decisive battle while gathering reinforcements. It was during this period that Cornwallis received orders from Clinton to choose a position on the [[Virginia Peninsula]]—referred to in contemporary letters as the "Williamsburg Neck"—and construct a fortified naval post to shelter [[ship of the line|ships of the line]]. In complying with this order, Cornwallis put himself at risk to become trapped. With the arrival of the French fleet under the [[François Joseph Paul de Grasse|Comte de Grasse]] and General Washington's combined French-American army, Cornwallis found himself cut off. When the Royal Navy fleet, under Admiral [[Thomas Graves, 1st Baron Graves|Thomas Graves]], was defeated by the French at the [[Battle of the Chesapeake]], and a French [[siege train]] arrived from [[Newport, Rhode Island]], his position became untenable. Cornwallis surrendered to General Washington and the French commander the [[Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau|Comte de Rochambeau]] on October 19, 1781.
Cornwallis va comunicar aquest desastre a Clinton en una carta que va obrir:
2-Cornwallis reported this disaster to Clinton in a letter that opened:
<blockquote>Tinc la mortificació per informar a la vostra excel·lència que he estat obligat a renunciar als càrrecs de York i Gloucester i a lliurar les tropes sota el meu comandament per capitulació, el 19 d'aquest mes, com a presoners de guerra a les forces combinades d’Amèrica.<ref>Cornwallis to Clinton, 20th October, 1781, Cornwallis Papers, [http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/default.htm Public Record Office]</ref>
.I have the mortification to inform Your Excellency that I have been forced to give up the posts of York and Gloucester and to surrender the troops under my command by capitulation, on the 19th instant, as prisoners of war to the combined forces of America.</blockquote>
==Conseqüències==
Amb la rendició a Yorktown, la participació total de les forces franceses en aquella batalla i la pèrdua resultant de l'exèrcit de Cornwallis, l'esforç de guerra britànic es va aturar. L’únic exèrcit britànic de qualsevol mida que quedava a Amèrica va ser el de Sir Henry Clinton a Nova York. Clinton, paralitzat per la derrota, no va fer cap altra acció i va ser substituït per Guy Carleton el 1782.<ref>Wientraub; ''Iron Tears'' 2005.</ref> Un impacte revés en la fortuna, que es va produir a la derrota d'una rara derrota naval, va servir per augmentar el canvi de l'opinió popular britànica en contra. la guerra. El Ministeri del Nord es va ensorrar, un govern orientat a la pau va prendre el poder i no es va fer cap operació important al continent americà durant la resta de la guerra. Mentre Saratoga havia començat el declivi de les fortunes britàniques a la Revolució, Yorktown va ser el seu toc final.<ref>Andrew Jackson O'Shaughnessy, ''The Men who Lost America: British Leadership, the American Revolution, and the Fate of the Empire'' (2014) pp 41-43, 76-78</ref>
1-With the surrender at Yorktown, the full participation of French forces in that battle, and the resulting loss of Cornwallis' army, the British war effort ground to a halt. The sole remaining British army of any size remaining in America was that under Sir Henry Clinton in New York. Clinton, paralyzed by the defeat, made no further action and was replaced by [[Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester|Guy Carleton]] in 1782. Such a shocking reversal in fortune, coming as it had on the back of a rare naval defeat, served to increase the shift in British popular opinion against the war. The [[North Ministry]] collapsed, a peace-oriented government took power, and no further major operation on the American continent occurred for the rest of the war. While Saratoga had started the decline of British fortunes in the Revolution, Yorktown was its death knell.
==Referències==
===Citations===
{{reflist}}
===Bibliografia===
{{div col}}
*{{cite book|last=Alden|first=John|title=The South in the Revolution, 1763 to 1789|publisher=Louisiana State University Press|year=1981|location=Baton Rouge, LA|isbn=978-0-8071-0003-5|oclc=245906364}}
*Bicheno, H: ''Rebels and Redcoats: The American Revolutionary War'', London, 2003
*Boatner, Mark Mayo, III. ''Encyclopedia of the American Revolution.'' New York: McKay, 1966; revised 1974. {{ISBN|0-8117-0578-1}}.
* Buchanan, John, ''The Road to Guilford Courthouse: The American Revolution in the Carolinas'' (1999)
*{{cite book|last=Cann|first=Marvin|title=Prelude to War: The First Battle of Ninety Six: November 19–21, 1775|journal=The South Carolina Historical Quarterly|issue=Volume 76, No. 4|date=October 1975|jstor=27567333}}
*Clement, R: "The World Turned Upside down At the Surrender of Yorktown", ''Journal of American Folklore'', Vol. 92, No. 363 (Jan. - Mar., 1979), pp. 66–67
* Crow, Jeffrey J. and Larry E. Tise, eds. ''The Southern Experience in the American Revolution'' (1978)
*Evans-Hatch Associates, ''[http://www.nps.gov/revwar/educational_resources/southern_campaigns_research/sc_revwar_phaseIII.pdf Southern Campaigns of the Revolutionary War]'', National Park Service, June 2005
*Halstead, C: ''The Loyalists in the American Revolution'', Gloucester MA, 1959
*Harvey, R: ''A Few Bloody Noses: The American War of Independence'', London, 2001
*Hibbert, C: ''Rebels and Redcoats: The American Revolution Through British Eyes'', London, 2001,
* Lumpkin, Lumpkin. ''From Savannah to Yorktown: The American Revolution in the South'' (2000)
*Mackesy, P: ''The War for America'', London, 1964
*{{cite book|last=McCrady|first=Edward|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HEoUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA97#v=onepage&f=false|title=The History of South Carolina in the Revolution, Volume 3|location=New York|publisher=Macmillan|year=1901|oclc=10492792}}
*{{cite book|last=Morrill|first=Dan|title=Southern Campaigns of the American Revolution|url=https://archive.org/details/southerncampaign00morr|url-access=registration|publisher=Nautical & Aviation Publishing|year=1993|location=Baltimore, MD|isbn=978-1-877853-21-0|oclc=231619453|ref=Morrill}}
*Peckham, H: ''The War for Independence, A Military History'', Chicago, 1967
*Rankin, Hugh F. North Carolina in the American Revolution (1996)
*Sherman, William Thomas: ''[https://archive.org/details/CalendarAndRecordOfTheRevolutionaryWarInTheSouth1780-1781 Calendar and Record of the Revolutionary War in the South: 1780-1781]'', 2013
*Syrett, D: "The British Armed Forces in the American Revolutionary War: Publications, 1875-1998", ''The Journal of Military History'', Vol. 63, No. 1. (January, 1999), pp. 147–164,
*Valentine, A: Lord George Germain, Oxford, 1962,
*Ward, H: ''The American Revolution: Nationhood Achieved'' 1763–1788, New York, 1995,
*Weintraub, S: ''Iron Tears, Rebellion in America'' 1775–1783, London, 2005,
*Wickwire, F: ''Cornwallis, The American Adventure'', Boston, 1970,
*Willcox, W: ''Portrait of a General, Sir Henry Clinton in the War of Independence'', New York, 1964,
*{{cite book|title=The Southern Strategy: Britain's Conquest of South Carolina and Georgia, 1775–1780|first=David K|last=Wilson|publisher=University of South Carolina Press|year=2005|isbn=1-57003-573-3|location=Columbia, SC|oclc=232001108}}
{{div col end}}
==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
*Alden, John R. ''The South in the Revolution, 1763–1789''. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1957.
*Cashin, Edward J. ''William Bartram and the American Revolution on the Southern Frontier''. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2000. {{ISBN|1-57003-325-0}}.
*Chidsey, Donald Barr. ''The War in the South: the Carolinas and Georgia in the American Revolution, an Informal History''. New York: Crown Publishers, 1969.
*Coker, P. C., III. Charleston's Maritime Heritage, 1670-1865: An Illustrated History. Charleston, S.C.: Coker-Craft, 1987. 314 pp.
*Crow, Jeffrey J. and Larry E. Tise, eds. ''The Southern Experience in the American Revolution''. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1978. {{ISBN|0-8078-1313-3}}.
*Eckenrode, H. J. ''The Revolution in Virginia''. Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books, 1964.
*Lumpkin, Henry. ''From Savannah to Yorktown: the American Revolution in the South''. Columbia, S.C.: University of South Carolina Press, 1981. {{ISBN|0-87249-408-X}}.
*O'Donnell, James H. ''Southern Indians in the American Revolution''. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1973. {{ISBN|0-87049-131-8}}.
*O'Shaughnessy, Andrew Jackson. ''The Men who Lost America: British Leadership, the American Revolution, and the Fate of the Empire'' (2014).
*Oller, John. ''The Swamp Fox: How Francis Marion Saved the American Revolution''. Boston: Da Capo Press, 2016. {{ISBN|978-0-306-82457-9}}.
* {{cite book | last=Reynolds, Jr. | first=William R. | title=Andrew Pickens: South Carolina Patriot in the Revolutionary War | publisher=McFarland & Company, Inc. | location=Jefferson NC | year=2012 | isbn=978-0-7864-6694-8}}
*Russell, David Lee, ''The America Revolution in the Southern Colonies'', Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland Publishing, 2009. {{ISBN|978-0-7864-4339-0}}
*Selby, John E. ''The Revolution in Virginia, 1775–1783.'' Williamsburg, Va.: University Press of Virginia, 1988. {{ISBN|0-87935-075-X}}.
*Thayer, Theodore. ''Nathanael Greene: Strategist of the American Revolution''. 1960.
{{refend}}
==Enllaços externs==
*[http://www.history.army.mil/reference/revbib/southo.htm The War of American Independence Select Bibliography of Operations: Southern Theater] compiled by the [[United States Army Center of Military History]]
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