Llengües nostràtiques: diferència entre les revisions

{{Infotaula família lingüística

|name=Nostràtic

|map=[[Fitxer:Nostratic tree.PNG|thumb|260px|center]]<center>representació esquemàtica d'una de les versions de la hipòtesi del nostràtic</center>

}}

Les '''llengües nostràtiques''' constitueixen una família de llengües reconstruïda que a hores d'ara presenta una extremada controvèrsia entre els [[lingüística històrica|lingüístics històrics]]. Segons els seus proponents, el nostràtic inclouria una gran porció de famílies lingüístiques d'Europa, Àsia, Àfrica i el nord d'Amèrica.

 

 

== Fons: de l'indoeuropeu al nostràtic ==

Es pot interpretar millor el concepte de les llengües nostràtiques en el context del descobriment, mètode d'investigació, i aplicació de la família de llengües del indoeuropeu. Quan [[William Jones (filòleg)|Sir William Jones]] suggerí per primera vegada la hipòtesi de l'indoeuropeu el 1786, va documentar la seua idea amb un examen sistemàtic comparant paraules de diferents llengües, les quals tenien un sons i significats semblants. Jones sostenia essencialment que aquestes ressemblances eren massa freqüents perquè la mera coincidència expliqui la seua existència, posant particular èmfasi en la semblança entre patrons morfològics: [[Declinació gramatical|declinacions]] i [[conjugació|conjugacions]]. Proposà que les llengües en qüestió haguessin provingut d'una llengua en algun moment en el passat, i que divergiren l'una de l'altra a causa de la separació geogràfica i el pas de temps. L'idea d'una "llengua mare" es va veure llavors reforçada.

 

 

== Origin of the Nostratic hypothesis ==

The last quarter of the 19th century saw various linguists putting forward proposals linking the [[Indo-European languages]] to other language families such as [[Finno-Ugric languages|Finno-Ugric]], [[Altaic languages|Altaic]] and [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] ([[Henry Sweet|Sweet]] 1900: vii, 112-132). In 1903, the Danish linguist [[Holger Pedersen (linguist)|Holger Pedersen]] proposed "Nostratian," a [[protolanguage]] for the protolanguages of the [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] (later broadened into [[Afro-Asiatic languages|Afro-Asiatic]]), [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]], [[Uralic languages|Uralic]], Altaic, and [[Eskimo-Aleut languages|Eskimo-Aleut]] language families, and possibly some others. The name derives from the [[Latin]] word ''nostras'', meaning 'our fellow-countryman' (plural: ''nostrates''), because about three-quarters of people in the world (such as Holger Pedersen himself) have been speaking one of these languages over the last few centuries.

 

 

== Membership ==

The language families proposed for inclusion in Nostratic vary, but all Nostraticists agree on a common core of language families, with differences of opinion appearing over which additional families to include.

 

 

== Nostratic Urheimat ==

Allan Bomhard and [[Colin Renfrew]] are in broad agreement with the earlier conclusions of Illich-Svitych and Dolgopolsky in seeking the Nostratic [[urheimat]] within the [[Mesolithic]] (or [[Epipaleolithic]]) Middle East, the stage which directly preceded the [[Neolithic]] and was transitional to it. Looking at the cultural assemblages of this period, two sequences in particular stand out as possible archeological correlates of the earliest Nostratians or their immediate precursors.

 

 

==Reconstructed phonology==

The [[phoneme]]s tabulated below are commonly reconstructed for the Proto-Nostratic language (Kaiser & Shevoroshkin 1988). [[Allan R. Bomhard]], who relies more heavily on Indo-European and less on the other Nostratic branches than the "Moscow School", reconstructs a different vowel system, with three pairs of vowels connected by [[Ablaut]]: {{IPA|/a/-/ə/, /e/-/i/, /o/-/u/}}.

 

===Consonants===

{| class="wikitable" style="font-family: Gentium, Doulos SIL, Charis SIL, TITUS Cyberbit Basic, Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode;"

|- align="center"

 

==Sound correspondences==

The following table is compiled from data given by Kaiser & Shevoroshkin (1988) and Starostin [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/bdescr.cgi?root=config&morpho=0&basename=\data\nostr\nostret]. Because linguists working on Proto-Indo-European, Proto-Uralic, and Proto-Dravidian do not usually use the [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]], the transcriptions used in those fields are also given. The IPA symbols are between slashes because this is a [[Phoneme|phonemic]] transcription. The exact values of the phoneme "p₁" in Proto-Afro-Asiatic and Proto-Dravidian are unknown. "0" indicates disappearance without a trace. Hyphens indicate different developments at the beginning and in the interior of words; no consonants ever occurred at the ends of word roots. ''Starostin's list of affricate and fricative correspondences does not mention Afro-Asiatic or Dravidian, and Kaiser & Shevoroshkin don't mention these sounds much; hence the holes in the table.''

 

 

== A sample Nostratic etymology ==

As an example of the kind of [[etymology|etymologies]] put forward by supporters of the Nostratic hypothesis, we can cite the following (from Bomhard and Kerns, ''The Nostratic Macrofamily'', p. 219).

 

 

''Comments''

&mdash; This exemplifies what some linguists find suspect about the Nostratic hypothesis: a single proto-form is being suggested as the ancestor of words meaning 'barley', 'wheat', 'pebbles', and 'seeds'.

 

 

==Further proposed cognates==

The following are taken from Kaiser & Shevoroshkin (1988) and Bengtson (1998) (and transcribed into the [[help:IPA|IPA]]). ''The same cautionary notes as for the sound correspondence table apply.''

 

===Personal pronouns===

[[Personal pronoun]]s are seldom borrowed between languages. Therefore the many correspondences between Nostratic pronouns are rather strong evidence for the existence of a Proto-Nostratic language. The difficulty of finding Afro-Asiatic [[cognate]]s is, however, taken by some as evidence that Nostratic has two or three branches, Afro-Asiatic and Eurasiatic (and possibly Dravidian), and that most or all of the pronouns in the following table can only be traced to Proto-Eurasiatic.

 

 

== Referències ==

*Bomhard, Allan R., and John C. Kerns (1994). ''The Nostratic Macrofamily: A Study in Distant Linguistic Relationship''. Berlin, New York, and Amsterdam: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-013900-6

*Campbell, Lyle (1998). "Nostratic: a personal assessment". In Joseph C. Salmons and Brian D. Joseph (eds.), ''Nostratic: Sifting the Evidence.'' Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 142. John Benjamins.